Summary: The mental wellbeing of first-time mothers during pregnancy directly influences their children’s behavior by age two. Mothers who experienced stress or anxiety while pregnant were more likely to have toddlers with behavioral issues such as temper tantrums, restlessness, and spiteful actions. Emotional difficulties in children—such as clinginess, tearfulness, and persistent unhappiness—were also linked to early couple relationship problems experienced after the birth.
Source: University of Cambridge
Expectant parents’ emotional struggles predict emotional and behavioral problems in two-year-olds, new research shows. For the first time, couple conflict is shown to help explain emotional problems in very young children.
A team of researchers from the Universities of Cambridge, Birmingham, New York and Leiden report findings that highlight the need for improved support for couples before, during and after pregnancy. This study is the first to track both mothers’ and fathers’ mental wellbeing over time and to examine how parental wellbeing and couple relationship quality relate to children’s adjustment at 14 and 24 months of age.
The study followed 438 first-time expectant mothers and fathers recruited in the East of England, New York State and the Netherlands. Participants were assessed during the third trimester and then at 4, 14 and 24 months after birth using standardized questionnaires and in-person interviews. Parents reported symptoms of anxiety and depression, evaluated the quality of their couple relationship, and rated their child’s socioemotional adjustment and behavior.
Lead author Professor Claire Hughes of Cambridge’s Centre for Family Research emphasized the importance of including both parents in this kind of research: “For too long, the experiences of first-time dads have been side-lined or treated separately from those of mothers. This needs to change because difficulties in children’s early relationships with both parents can have lasting effects.”
The researchers found a direct effect of mothers’ prenatal wellbeing on children’s externalizing behaviors at 24 months. In other words, mothers who experienced higher levels of stress or anxiety during pregnancy were more likely to have children who displayed outward behavioral problems—temper tantrums, restlessness and oppositional behavior—by their second birthday.
In addition, the study showed that children were more likely to show emotional or internalizing problems—such as excessive worry, tearfulness, clinginess in new situations, and persistent unhappiness—when parents reported relationship difficulties in the early postnatal period. These couple problems ranged from general dissatisfaction to overt conflict and arguments.
“Our findings highlight the need for earlier and more effective support for couples to prepare them better for the transition to parenthood,” Professor Hughes said.
While previous research has linked parental mood to child outcomes, this study is notable for simultaneously assessing both parents repeatedly and relating those measures to child behavior in the first two years of life. The analysis used latent growth models to examine patterns over time and found that prenatal exposure to parental mood disturbance has distinct effects: maternal prenatal wellbeing predicted externalizing problems at 24 months, and paternal prenatal wellbeing predicted socioemotional difficulties at 14 months. Internalizing symptoms at 24 months were associated indirectly with parental wellbeing, with couple relationship quality acting as a mediator.
Co-author Dr Rory Devine, a developmental psychologist at the University of Birmingham, noted that the research accounted for parents’ mental health histories prior to their first pregnancy and following birth, reinforcing the conclusion that mental health issues during pregnancy uniquely affect child behavior. The authors acknowledge that genetic factors may also contribute, but their longitudinal data support a direct role for prenatal parental wellbeing and for relationship quality in shaping early child outcomes.
Dr Sarah Foley, also of Cambridge’s Centre for Family Research and a co-author on a related study, added that fathers can share traumatic birth memories with their partners and that such shared stress underscores the need for inclusive antenatal care. “If mum has a difficult birth, that can be a potentially traumatic experience for dads,” she said.
The researchers stress practical implications: perinatal mental health support should extend beyond individual mothers to include fathers and, importantly, the couple relationship. Better preparation for the transition to parenthood—communication skills, conflict management, and accessible mental health services—could improve outcomes for both parents and children, yet many families currently miss out on these supports due to stretched resources.
This research is part of an ongoing project examining the wellbeing and influence of new mothers and fathers. A related study published previously found that fathers often share traumatic memories of birth with their partners more than previously recognized, reinforcing the argument for more inclusive antenatal support that prepares both parents emotionally for postpartum challenges.
Funding: This research was funded by the Economic and Social Research Council, the National Science Foundation and the Dutch Research Council.
Source:
University of Cambridge
Media Contacts:
Tom Almeroth-Williams – University of Cambridge
Image Source:
The image is credited to University of Cambridge.
Original Research (open access):
“Parental wellbeing, couple relationship quality and children’s behavior problems in the first two years of life.” Hughes, C., Devine, R.T., Mesman, J., & Blair, C. Development & Psychopathology. doi: 10.1017/S0954579419000804
Abstract (summary):
This study examined how parental mood disturbance and couple relationship quality relate to children’s internalizing and externalizing problems across the first two years of life. Four assessment points—from the last trimester of pregnancy to 24 months postbirth—captured symptoms of anxiety and depression in both parents, couple relationship quality, and children’s socioemotional adjustment. Findings indicate distinct direct effects of maternal and paternal prenatal wellbeing on later child outcomes and show that poor couple relationship quality mediates the intergenerational persistence of internalizing problems, even within a low-risk sample.