Summary: Neural patterns and the types of reading difficulties differ between children from lower socioeconomic backgrounds and those from higher socioeconomic backgrounds who struggle to read.
Source: MIT
Many children face challenges when learning to read, and research consistently shows that children from lower socioeconomic status (SES) households are at higher risk for reading difficulties than their higher-SES peers.
A new study by neuroscientists at MIT reveals that the cognitive roots and brain activity associated with reading struggles differ, on average, between lower- and higher-SES children. The findings suggest that the nature of reading difficulty is not the same across socioeconomic groups and that interventions should reflect these differences.
The study examined more than 150 first- and second-grade children with a range of SES backgrounds. Researchers administered standardized tests measuring phonological processing (the ability to hear and manipulate speech sounds) and orthographic processing (the visual recognition of letters and words). They also recorded functional MRI scans while children performed tasks that engaged these two core reading processes.
For children from higher-SES families who struggled with reading, the primary deficit was most often phonological: difficulty blending, segmenting, or manipulating the sounds that make up words. Brain scans of these children showed differences in activation in left-hemisphere regions commonly tied to phonological processing, consistent with prior studies of dyslexia and other reading disorders.
In contrast, among children from lower-SES families, reading difficulty was more strongly associated with weaknesses in rapid naming and orthographic processing—skills related to quickly recognizing letters and familiar word forms. Correspondingly, these children showed distinct brain activation patterns in regions linked to visual word recognition and orthographic processing, such as temporoparietal and fusiform areas.
These neurocognitive dissociations indicate that socioeconomic factors can systematically influence which underlying systems contribute to reading problems. As a result, a one-size-fits-all approach to remediation may miss important differences in needs across socioeconomic groups.
Why SES might affect reading skills
Socioeconomic conditions can shape early literacy experiences in ways that influence orthographic development. Children from lower-SES homes often have less exposure to books, fewer opportunities to visit libraries, and reduced access to literacy-rich environments—factors that can slow the development of visual word recognition and rapid naming skills. Meanwhile, phonological deficits are a prominent feature in many children with dyslexia and are often observed in higher-SES samples studied in neuroscience research.
Because most prior neuroscience studies have relied on convenience samples drawn disproportionately from higher-SES families, the current findings highlight the importance of sampling broadly to capture the full range of reading profiles and brain-behavior relationships that exist in the population.
Implications for instruction and intervention
The study suggests that interventions should be sensitive to the specific cognitive deficits experienced by each child. For children whose difficulties stem primarily from phonological processing, targeted phonics and sound-awareness training remain essential. For children whose challenges arise from orthographic or rapid naming weaknesses—more common in lower-SES groups—approaches that build visual familiarity with letters and words, increase print exposure, and strengthen rapid naming may be especially beneficial.
Previous work by the research team supports this tailored perspective. A 2017 intervention study found that a summer program designed to strengthen the sensory and cognitive foundations of reading yielded greater gains for lower-SES students, suggesting that interventions can be more effective when matched to the child’s underlying needs and environment.
The authors emphasize that schools and educators should identify the sources of a child’s reading difficulty—whether learning differences such as dyslexia or factors related to socioeconomic disadvantage—and adopt assessment and instructional strategies that address those specific drivers. Doing so can improve outcomes and help reduce SES-related disparities in reading achievement.
Lead author Rachel Romeo notes that broad, representative sampling is crucial for understanding how early environments shape the neurocognitive foundations of reading. Senior author John Gabrieli adds that recognizing diverse causes of reading failure will help educators and policymakers design more equitable and effective supports for all learners.
Romeo, now an assistant professor at the University of Maryland, and Gabrieli at MIT are continuing this work in partnership with colleagues at the Harvard Graduate School of Education. They are evaluating language and preliteracy interventions aimed at better preparing preschool-aged children from lower-SES backgrounds for reading instruction. Romeo’s lab will further investigate which specific elements of low SES—such as reduced book exposure or limited early language opportunities—most strongly influence different aspects of language and literacy development.
About this reading research news
Author: Anne Trafton
Source: MIT
Contact: Anne Trafton – MIT
Image: The image is in the public domain
Original Research: Open access. “Socioeconomic dissociations in the neural and cognitive bases of reading disorders” by Rachel R. Romeo et al., Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience
Abstract
Socioeconomic dissociations in the neural and cognitive bases of reading disorders
Socioeconomic status in childhood is a strong predictor of differences in reading development. This study asks whether early environmental factors also moderate the cognitive and neurobiological foundations of reading disorders, including dyslexia. A diverse sample of 6–9-year-old children (n = 155; approximately half diagnosed with reading disorders) completed behavioral assessments and fMRI tasks that targeted phonological and orthographic processing. Results revealed a double dissociation: at higher SES levels, reading disorders were most strongly linked to phonological skill deficits and reduced activation in left inferior frontal and temporoparietal regions; at lower SES levels, reading disorders were more closely associated with rapid naming and orthographic skill deficits and with altered activation in left temporoparietal and fusiform regions. These findings indicate that children’s early environments systematically moderate the neurocognitive systems underlying reading disorders, with important implications for assessment, tailored interventions, and efforts to reduce SES-related disparities in reading outcomes. The study also cautions that relying primarily on high-SES convenience samples may conceal critical heterogeneity in typical and disordered reading development.