Self-esteem has intrigued psychologists for more than a century and remains one of the most researched topics in the social sciences (Bleidorn, Hufer, Kandler, Hopwood, & Riemann, 2018).
Despite extensive study and our common-sense sense that self-esteem relates to feelings of self-worth, many questions remain unanswered.
This article summarizes psychology’s current understanding of self-esteem and highlights recent findings from evolutionary psychology, developmental studies, genetics, and neuroscience. We also discuss how these insights, alongside positive psychology practices, can support clients and individuals seeking to build healthier self-regard.
This Article Contains:
- Current View of Self-Esteem
- How Did Self-Esteem Evolve?
- Self-Esteem and Genetics
- Self-Esteem and the Brain
- Self-Esteem Versus Narcissism
- Work Values
- 5 Findings on Self-Esteem and Body Image
- 6 Positive Practices to Grow Self-Esteem
- A Take-Home Message
- References
Current View of Self-Esteem
There are many definitions of self-esteem across popular culture, psychology, and neuroscience, but most link back to the idea of self-worth.
Below we outline what researchers mean by self-esteem, why it matters, and the contemporary psychological perspective on the concept.
What is self-esteem?
Cognitive scientist Juan Yang and colleagues describe self-esteem as a driver of behavior and goals: people strive to feel good about themselves and to maintain that positive self-regard. In short, self-esteem is an evaluative judgment about our own worth and how well we believe we are doing in areas of life we consider important (Yang, Xu, Chen, Shi, & Han, 2016).
Although intuitive, this definition masks a complex construct. Self-esteem varies among people and across situations, and clear, concise definitions are challenging to produce.
Common dictionary definitions describe self-esteem as satisfaction with oneself or a positive opinion of one’s worth. People with higher self-esteem generally feel a stable sense of personal value, while those with low self-esteem may feel worthless or dislike themselves (Abdel-Khalek, 2016; Jordan, Zeigler-Hill, & Cameron, 2017).
Importantly, self-esteem is not binary. It exists on a spectrum and reflects a person’s overall judgment of worth. It is related to—but distinct from—self-efficacy: self-efficacy concerns beliefs about our abilities, while self-esteem concerns our sense of being deserving or valuable (Ellis, 2019).
Research shows self-esteem plays a role in mental and physical wellbeing, supports performance in domains such as education, and generally correlates with social acceptance and better health outcomes (Jordan et al., 2017).
Global versus domain-specific
Researchers distinguish between global self-esteem—an overall sense of worth—and domain-specific self-esteem, which applies to particular areas such as appearance, academic performance, or work. Global self-esteem tends to shape how people view their abilities in specific domains (Brown, Dutton, & Cook, 2001).
State versus trait self-esteem
Another important distinction is between trait self-esteem and state self-esteem. Trait self-esteem is a relatively stable, long-term sense of worth. State self-esteem fluctuates with circumstances and is sensitive to recent experiences such as success, failure, acceptance, or rejection (Jordan et al., 2017).
Psychological health and self-esteem
Low self-esteem is linked to various mental health challenges and is considered in diagnostic criteria for some conditions. Generally, higher self-esteem correlates with greater life satisfaction, fewer negative moods, and better overall psychological functioning (Baumeister, Campbell, Krueger, & Vohs, 2003).
Physical health and self-esteem
Self-esteem also relates to physical wellbeing. Higher self-esteem often coincides with healthier behaviors and faster recovery from illness, while lower self-esteem can be associated with reduced engagement in health-promoting activities (Stinson et al., 2008).
The next sections revisit these themes through the lens of evolutionary theory, genetics, and neuroscience.
How Did Self-Esteem Evolve?
Why would humans evolve a need to view themselves positively? One plausible answer lies in our social history: belonging and social bonds improved ancestors’ chances of survival.
Sociometer theory suggests self-esteem functions like an internal gauge of social acceptance. Low self-esteem signals increased risk of social exclusion, motivating behaviors to restore connections and status. In that way, self-esteem acts similarly to bodily drives—when it is low, it prompts action to remedy the deficit (MacDonald & Leary, 2012).
Terror management theory offers another perspective: self-esteem helps buffer existential anxiety by anchoring our sense of value within meaningful beliefs or cultural standards. Meeting those standards can reduce generalized anxiety and contribute to a stable sense of worth (Pyszczynski, Greenberg, Solomon, Arndt, & Schimel, 2004).
Both frameworks emphasize why social feedback and personal values influence self-regard and why maintaining healthy self-esteem supports psychological resilience.
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Self-Esteem and Genetics
Behavioral genetics research suggests roughly half of variation in self-esteem and related personality traits is heritable, with the remaining portion shaped by environmental factors such as parenting, schooling, relationships, and life experiences (Horsburgh, Schermer, Veselka, & Vernon, 2009; Svedberg et al., 2016; Bleidorn et al., 2018).
This does not imply destiny: the environmental half means considerable scope for growth and improvement. Choosing supportive environments and relationships can meaningfully influence one’s long-term sense of worth.
If you want to cultivate higher self-esteem, surround yourself with positive, growth-oriented influences.
Self-Esteem and the Brain
Self-esteem is rooted in neural processes, though the precise brain mechanisms remain an active area of research.
Functional MRI studies link trait self-esteem to patterns of brain activity during self-evaluation and in response to social feedback (Yang et al., 2016). Other work has identified regions that help translate perceptions of social reputation into temporary changes in state self-esteem (Kawamichi et al., 2018).
While promising, neuroscience has more to reveal about how brain systems support the development, maintenance, and decline of self-esteem.
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Self-Esteem Versus Narcissism
Narcissism and self-esteem both involve favorable self-views, but they differ in important ways. Narcissism entails a sense of superiority and a craving for admiration, while healthy self-esteem reflects a sense of adequacy and self-respect.
Research indicates narcissism is not simply an extreme form of high self-esteem (Brummelman, Thomaes, & Sedikides, 2016). A narcissistic person may outwardly present confidence while privately struggling with insecurity; their sense of superiority differs qualitatively from stable, healthy self-worth.
I may believe I am superior to others, yet still feel unhappy with who I am.
This distinction matters clinically: treatment aimed at reducing narcissistic tendencies should avoid undermining a client’s basic sense of worth.
Work Values
Early attitudes toward work can shape later self-esteem. Work values—what people seek from their jobs—include intrinsic elements (meaning, learning, engagement) and extrinsic elements (salary, prestige, security).
A long-term study found that strong intrinsic work values in adolescence predict positive emotions in adulthood and are linked to higher self-esteem over time. Pursuing learning and skill development appears to support long-term self-worth (Fukasawa, Watanabe, Nishi, & Kawakami, 2020).
This aligns with Self-Determination Theory, which connects intrinsic motivation—fostered by autonomy, competence, and relatedness—to wellbeing (Ryan & Deci, 2018).
5 Findings on Self-Esteem and Body Image
Social media’s rise has intensified focus on appearance and introduced new pressures, especially among young people. Selfie culture and high levels of self-objectification have been linked to lower self-esteem in some groups (Veldhuis et al., 2018).
Studies report widespread body dissatisfaction among young women and connect higher weight and lower self-esteem with greater dissatisfaction (Pop, 2016). Exercise can help by improving both physical health and body image, which in turn supports self-esteem.
Research also shows that self-compassion helps buffer negative body image. Interventions that build self-compassion and self-esteem—such as guided writing exercises—can improve body appreciation and reduce distress (Seekis, Bradley, & Duffy, 2017; Stapleton et al., 2017).
Although much research has centered on young women, concerns about body image and associated effects on self-esteem are relevant across genders and ages.
6 Positive Practices to Grow Self-Esteem
Self-esteem matters for identity and wellbeing. Practitioners can help clients by focusing on strategies that nurture self-compassion, competence, and meaningful engagement.
Practical exercises and tools that support self-esteem include:
- “Things I Like About Me” — a worksheet that helps people notice strengths and positive qualities.
- Designing Affirmations — creating specific, believable affirmations to reinforce realistic self-worth.
- Self-Esteem Journaling — regular reflective writing to highlight progress and reframe negative self-talk.
- The Self-Esteem Check-up — structured reflection on self-love, self-respect, and confidence in abilities.
17 Exercises To Foster Self-Acceptance and Compassion
Structured self-compassion exercises can help clients develop a kinder relationship with themselves and reduce body-related distress.
A Take-Home Message
Self-esteem will remain a central topic in psychology as researchers explore its evolutionary roots, genetic influences, and neural underpinnings. Advances in these areas, along with growing evidence from positive psychology, will refine our understanding and interventions.
Current evidence shows self-esteem is integral to identity, child development, relationships, and overall wellbeing. It is shaped by both biology and environment, and it benefits from practices that increase self-compassion, foster competence, and create supportive social contexts.
When low self-esteem is detected, interventions that build intrinsic motivation and self-compassion are especially valuable. These approaches help people accept life’s challenges and respond with kinder, more adaptive self-care.
The more you open your heart to this reality instead of constantly fighting against it, the more you will be able to feel compassion for yourself and all your fellow humans in the experience of life.
Kirsten Neff
We hope this overview clarified current perspectives on self-esteem and offered practical ideas for supporting growth. Consider using structured self-compassion and self-esteem exercises to help clients build lasting self-worth.
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